Speech Apraxia and Autism Demystified

Understanding Speech Apraxia and Autism

To comprehend the relationship between speech apraxia and autism, it's important to first understand what each condition entails.

What is Speech Apraxia?

Speech apraxia, also known as verbal apraxia or childhood apraxia of speech, is a motor speech disorder that affects the ability to coordinate the movements needed for speech production. Individuals with speech apraxia experience difficulties in planning and executing the precise movements of the tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech-related muscles. This results in challenges in producing clear and intelligible speech.

The exact cause of childhood apraxia of speech is often unknown, but research suggests that it may involve problems in the area of the brain that controls coordinated muscle movements.

What is Autism?

Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication challenges, and restricted or repetitive behaviors. It is a broad spectrum disorder, with individuals experiencing a wide range of symptoms and levels of impairment.

The exact cause of autism is not yet fully understood, but it is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Autism affects individuals differently, with some having mild difficulties while others may require significant support in daily functioning.

The Link Between Speech Apraxia and Autism

Research suggests a significant overlap between speech apraxia and autism. In fact, one study found that as much as 65% of children with autism have speech apraxia, highlighting the substantial co-occurrence of the two conditions.

The relationship between apraxia and autism can lead to more severe speech difficulties, impacting both expressive and receptive language abilities in individuals. Challenges in diagnosing and assessing speech apraxia in individuals with autism arise due to shared characteristics of language and communication difficulties, the need for a comprehensive evaluation by a multidisciplinary team, and the variability in presentation of both conditions. Additionally, motor planning deficits may be present in individuals with autism, making it challenging to execute speech sounds accurately.

While the precise relationship between speech apraxia and autism is still being explored, it is clear that the co-occurrence of these conditions requires tailored interventions to address the communication challenges faced by individuals. Further research is needed to deepen our understanding and develop effective strategies for supporting individuals with both speech apraxia and autism.

Signs and Challenges of Co-occurring Speech Apraxia and Autism

When speech apraxia and autism co-occur, individuals may face specific challenges related to speech, language, and communication. Understanding these signs and challenges is essential to provide appropriate support and intervention. The main areas of difficulty include speech and language difficulties, motor planning deficits, and communication challenges.

Speech and Language Difficulties

Children with co-occurring speech apraxia and autism often experience significant speech and language difficulties. Speech apraxia can make it challenging to plan and coordinate the movements required for speech, resulting in unclear or inconsistent speech patterns. Additionally, the communication difficulties associated with autism can further compound the challenges in expressing thoughts and ideas verbally.

These difficulties may manifest as:

• Limited vocabulary and difficulty finding the right words
• Inconsistent speech sound production
• Difficulty with articulation and sound sequencing
• Challenges in grammar and sentence structure
• Impaired comprehension of complex language

Addressing these speech and language difficulties requires a comprehensive approach that combines techniques from speech therapy and interventions designed for individuals with autism.

Motor Planning Deficits

Motor planning deficits are a common characteristic of both speech apraxia and autism. In the context of co-occurring conditions, these deficits can manifest in challenges executing speech sounds accurately. Children may struggle with coordinating the precise movements necessary for clear articulation and speech production.

Motor planning deficits can result in:

• Inconsistent production of speech sounds
• Difficulties imitating or producing complex speech patterns
• Limited ability to sequence sounds and syllables

To address motor planning deficits, speech therapy techniques that focus on improving motor coordination and sequencing skills can be beneficial.

Communication Challenges

Individuals with co-occurring speech apraxia and autism often face significant communication challenges. These challenges can manifest in various ways, such as difficulty initiating and maintaining conversations, limited social interactions, and challenges in understanding nonverbal cues.

Communication challenges associated with co-occurring conditions may include:

• Impaired social communication skills
• Difficulty understanding figurative language and abstract concepts
• Challenges with turn-taking and conversational reciprocity
• Limited use of gestures and nonverbal communication
• Difficulty understanding and responding to social cues

Tailored interventions, including speech therapy techniques and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems, can help individuals with co-occurring speech apraxia and autism overcome communication challenges and enhance their overall communication abilities.

By recognizing the signs and challenges associated with co-occurring speech apraxia and autism, individuals, families, and professionals can provide the necessary support and intervention to improve communication outcomes and enhance the quality of life for those affected.

Diagnosis and Assessment of Speech Apraxia in Individuals with Autism

When it comes to diagnosing and assessing speech apraxia in individuals with autism, there are several considerations that need to be taken into account. This section explores the shared characteristics and overlapping symptoms, the importance of a comprehensive evaluation by a multidisciplinary team, and the variability in presentation of speech apraxia in individuals with autism.

Shared Characteristics and Overlapping Symptoms

Speech apraxia and autism can present with shared characteristics and overlapping symptoms. Individuals with both conditions may experience difficulties in language and communication, including expressive and receptive language delays or impairments. These challenges can manifest in various ways, such as limited vocabulary, difficulty forming sentences, and struggles with social communication. The presence of these overlapping symptoms can complicate the diagnosis and assessment process.

Comprehensive Evaluation by a Multidisciplinary Team

Due to the complexity of speech apraxia and autism, a comprehensive evaluation by a multidisciplinary team is crucial. This team may include professionals such as speech-language pathologists, psychologists, developmental pediatricians, and occupational therapists. Each member of the team brings a unique expertise that contributes to a holistic understanding of the individual's challenges and needs.

The evaluation process typically involves assessing speech and language skills, motor planning abilities, social communication, and other relevant areas. Standardized assessments, observations, and interviews with parents and caregivers are often utilized to gather comprehensive information about the individual's communication abilities and challenges.

Variability in Presentation

One of the key considerations in diagnosing and assessing speech apraxia in individuals with autism is the variability in how these conditions present. There can be significant variation in the severity and characteristics of speech apraxia among individuals with autism. Some individuals may exhibit mild speech difficulties, while others may experience more severe impairments that impact both expressive and receptive language abilities. This variability underscores the importance of personalized assessment and intervention plans tailored to the specific needs of each individual.

Diagnosing and assessing speech apraxia in individuals with autism requires a comprehensive approach that considers the shared characteristics, involves a multidisciplinary team, and accounts for the variability in presentation. By taking these factors into account, professionals can gain a better understanding of the individual's communication profile and develop appropriate intervention strategies to support their speech and language development.

Intervention Strategies for Speech Apraxia and Autism

When addressing speech apraxia and autism, it is essential to implement intervention strategies that cater to the unique needs of individuals with these conditions. Here are some effective approaches to consider:

Speech Therapy Techniques

Speech therapy plays a crucial role in helping individuals with speech apraxia and autism improve their communication skills. Skilled speech-language pathologists (SLPs) use various techniques tailored to the specific needs of each individual. These techniques may include:

• Articulation Exercises: SLPs guide individuals through specific exercises to strengthen the muscles involved in speech production, improve coordination, and enhance articulation.
• Oral-Motor Exercises: These exercises target the oral muscles to improve control and coordination for speech sounds.
• Phonological Awareness Training: SLPs work on improving the awareness and understanding of sounds in words, which can enhance speech production and language skills.
• Intensive Treatment Programs: Intensive therapy programs that focus on motor planning and coordination for speech production are often effective for children with speech apraxia and autism. The therapy is structured and repetitive, allowing for consistent practice and progress over time.

Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) Systems

For individuals with significant difficulties in verbal speech, augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems can be beneficial. These systems provide alternative ways to express thoughts, needs, and desires. Examples of AAC systems include:

• Picture Communication Boards: Visual boards with symbols or pictures that individuals can point to in order to communicate their message.
• Symbol-Based Systems: Communication systems that use symbols or icons to represent words, phrases, and concepts, often displayed on a device or in a book format.
• Speech-Generating Devices (SGDs): Electronic devices with pre-programmed or customizable buttons that produce spoken words or phrases when activated.

AAC systems can be tailored to the individual's abilities and preferences, allowing for effective communication in various settings.

Tailored Treatment Plans

Individualized treatment plans are crucial for individuals with speech apraxia and autism. These plans should consider the unique strengths, challenges, and goals of each individual. A multidisciplinary team, including speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists, and behavioral therapists, may collaborate to develop a comprehensive treatment approach.

Treatment plans may include a combination of speech therapy techniques, AAC systems, and other strategies tailored to the individual's needs. Visual supports, core vocabulary practice, and involvement of parents and caregivers in the treatment process are also important components.

By utilizing speech therapy techniques, implementing AAC systems, and developing personalized treatment plans, individuals with speech apraxia and autism can make significant progress in their communication abilities. It is crucial to involve a team of professionals and to regularly assess and adjust the intervention strategies based on the individual's progress and evolving needs.

Early Detection and Intervention for Better Communication Outcomes

When it comes to speech apraxia and autism, early detection and intervention play a vital role in improving communication outcomes for individuals. Recognizing the signs and symptoms at an early stage allows for timely intervention and tailored treatment approaches. In addition, involving parents and caregivers in the process can greatly enhance the effectiveness of the interventions.

Importance of Early Diagnosis

Early diagnosis of speech apraxia and autism is crucial in order to initiate appropriate interventions promptly. Detecting these conditions in their early stages allows for early access to specialized services and therapies, leading to better communication outcomes. According to Mayo Clinic, early detection and intervention are key for children with childhood apraxia of speech to improve their communication skills and long-term outcomes. Early diagnosis also helps in identifying any co-occurring conditions and addressing them simultaneously, enhancing overall progress.

Individualized Treatment Approaches

Each individual with speech apraxia and autism is unique, and therefore, requires individualized treatment approaches. Personalized treatment plans take into account the specific needs, strengths, and challenges of the individual, allowing for targeted interventions. Therapists and professionals work closely with the individual and their family to design interventions that address their specific communication difficulties. According to TACA (Talk About Curing Autism), early intervention and personalized treatment plans are essential for addressing speech issues in children with autism and apraxia to help them develop effective communication skills [4]. These individualized approaches maximize the potential for progress and success.

Involvement of Parents and Caregivers

The involvement of parents and caregivers is integral to the success of early detection and intervention for speech apraxia and autism. They play a crucial role in the daily lives of individuals with these conditions, providing support and reinforcement outside of therapy sessions. When parents and caregivers actively participate in the intervention process, they can reinforce the strategies and techniques taught during therapy sessions, facilitating consistent practice and progress. Additionally, they can provide valuable insights and observations about the individual's communication skills and challenges, which can inform the treatment plan and goals.

By actively involving parents and caregivers, the communication interventions can be seamlessly integrated into the individual's daily routines and activities, maximizing the opportunities for learning and generalization of skills. This collaborative approach ensures that the individual receives consistent support and guidance across various environments, leading to better communication outcomes.

Early detection and intervention, individualized treatment approaches, and the involvement of parents and caregivers are all crucial elements in improving communication outcomes for individuals with speech apraxia and autism. By addressing these conditions early on and providing targeted interventions, individuals can develop effective communication skills and enhance their overall quality of life.

The Relationship Between Speech Apraxia and Other Communication Disorders

Speech apraxia often co-occurs with other communication disorders, including speech and language disorders in childhood. Understanding the relationship between these disorders is crucial for developing appropriate intervention strategies and providing effective support.

Speech and Language Disorders in Childhood

Speech and language disorders are common developmental difficulties in childhood, affecting approximately 5% to 8% of children. These disorders can manifest as primary disorders, where no known cause is identified, or as secondary disorders, which are associated with other conditions such as autism.

Primary speech and language disorders can impact various aspects of communication, including phonology (sounds), vocabulary, grammar, morphology (word changes), narrative skills, and pragmatic language (understanding intent and effective communication) [6]. These areas are often categorized as "language" outcomes, with phonology categorized separately.

Primary Speech and Language Disorders

Primary speech and language disorders can have adverse effects on school achievement, including difficulties in reading and spelling. They may also be associated with social, emotional, and behavioral problems, as well as challenges in peer interactions. These difficulties can persist into adolescence and adulthood, impacting literacy, mental health, and employability outcomes.

The etiology of primary speech and language disorders is still not fully understood, but there is evidence of associated risk factors such as medical difficulties and motor skill deficits. Genetic factors are also being increasingly recognized as playing a role, with a stronger link to expressive language difficulties.

Intervention Strategies for Primary Speech and Language Disorders

Interventions for children with primary speech and language disorders can take direct or indirect approaches, involving parents, caregivers, teachers, or speech and language therapists. Direct interventions focus on individual or group treatments, while indirect interventions aim to create an optimal communicative environment and provide training for professionals and caregivers.

Specific behavioral techniques, reinforcement, and a shift towards functional and metacognitive approaches are often employed in interventions. Treatment goals vary depending on the child's specific difficulties, and intervention duration and intensity may vary as well.

By recognizing the relationship between speech apraxia and other communication disorders, professionals can design comprehensive intervention plans that address the specific needs of individuals with co-occurring conditions. A multidisciplinary approach that involves collaboration between speech-language pathologists, educators, and families can greatly contribute to the success of intervention strategies and promote positive communication outcomes.

Speech Apraxia in Children with Cerebral Palsy

Cerebral palsy is a condition that can lead to various challenges, including difficulties in communication. Communication difficulties associated with cerebral palsy can arise from motor, intellectual, and sensory impairments, resulting in varying degrees of difficulty expressing oneself. Many children with cerebral palsy are referred to speech and language therapy (SLT) services to maximize their communication skills and enhance their ability to participate independently in interactive activities [7].

Communication Difficulties in Cerebral Palsy

The prevalence of speech, language, and communication impairment increases with the severity of motor and intellectual impairment in children with cerebral palsy. Communication difficulties can be associated with any type of cerebral palsy and may be related to limitations in the production of movements for speech, gesture, and facial expression, as well as receptive or expressive language, hearing, vision, or a combination of these functions. It is estimated that speech impairments affect approximately 36% of children with cerebral palsy, with communication difficulties observed in around 42%.

Speech and Language Therapy for Cerebral Palsy

Speech and language therapy is a common intervention for children with cerebral palsy to help them develop and improve their communication skills. The goal of speech and language therapy is to enhance natural forms of communication, introduce aids such as symbol charts or devices with synthetic speech, and provide training to communication partners. Therapy sessions are often tailored to the individual needs of each child, taking into account their specific challenges and strengths.

Effectiveness of Speech and Language Therapy

While speech and language therapy is commonly used for children with cerebral palsy, there is limited evidence to support its effectiveness. According to a review, changes in communication have been shown following therapy, but firm conclusions about its positive effects have not been demonstrated. The review suggests that further research is needed to describe this specific client group, investigate the effectiveness of various interventions, and ensure effective provision of therapy for children with cerebral palsy.

Various strategies have been employed to treat communication disorders associated with cerebral palsy, but the evidence of their effectiveness is currently limited. Some studies have evaluated treatments directly given to children, while others have focused on training for communication partners. However, methodological flaws and small sample sizes have hindered firm conclusions about the effectiveness of therapy. More research is required to determine the effectiveness of speech and language therapy for children with cerebral palsy and to explore the effectiveness of different therapeutic approaches.

In summary, communication difficulties are common in children with cerebral palsy, and speech and language therapy is frequently used to address these challenges. While therapy can lead to changes in communication, additional research is needed to determine the effectiveness of different interventions and ensure optimal provision of therapy for this specific group of children.

The Severity and Treatment of Speech Apraxia in Autism

When speech apraxia co-occurs with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it can present a range of severity levels and challenges in communication. Understanding the severity of speech apraxia in individuals with autism is crucial for developing appropriate treatment approaches and interventions. Early intervention is particularly important for addressing these communication difficulties effectively.

Range of Severity in Speech Apraxia

Research suggests that a significant number of children with autism may also have speech apraxia. In fact, one study found that up to 65% of children with autism have speech apraxia, highlighting the substantial overlap between the two conditions. The severity of speech apraxia can vary widely among individuals with autism. Some individuals may have mild difficulties with motor planning and articulation, while others may experience more profound challenges in producing clear and coordinated speech sounds.

Treatment Approaches for Autism and Apraxia

Treatment for individuals with autism and speech apraxia typically involves a combination of speech therapy and occupational therapy. The goal is to improve communication skills and address the specific challenges presented by both conditions. Speech therapy techniques may focus on improving motor planning, articulation, and overall speech intelligibility. Occupational therapy can help enhance fine motor skills, oral motor control, and sensory integration, which can contribute to improved speech production [8].

The treatment plans for individuals with autism and apraxia are often individualized to meet their unique needs. Therapy sessions may incorporate visual supports, gestures, and other augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies to facilitate communication. These approaches aim to support individuals in developing functional and effective communication skills.

Importance of Early Intervention

Early intervention plays a vital role in addressing speech apraxia in individuals with autism. Detecting and diagnosing speech apraxia early allows for timely intervention, which can lead to improved communication outcomes. By identifying the specific challenges individuals face and tailoring treatment plans accordingly, therapists can implement strategies that target their individual needs. Early intervention also provides opportunities for involving parents and caregivers in the therapy process, helping to reinforce skills and support communication development.

By recognizing the severity of speech apraxia in individuals with autism, implementing appropriate treatment approaches, and intervening early, it is possible to make significant strides in improving communication abilities. A comprehensive and holistic approach, involving speech therapy, occupational therapy, and the active participation of parents and caregivers, can pave the way for individuals with autism and speech apraxia to enhance their communication skills and overall quality of life.

Echolalia and the Triad of Challenges in Communication

When examining the relationship between speech apraxia and autism, it is essential to understand the phenomenon of echolalia and its role in communication challenges faced by individuals with autism.

Understanding Echolalia in Autism

Echolalia refers to the repetition of words or phrases and is commonly observed in children with autism. It serves as a communication tool for expressing needs, engaging in self-talk, or coping with challenging situations [10]. While echolalia may appear repetitive, it is important to recognize that it can have various functions and meanings for individuals with autism.

Echolalia can be categorized into two types: immediate and delayed. Immediate echolalia involves the immediate repetition of words or phrases that the individual has just heard, while delayed echolalia refers to the repetition of previously heard words or phrases after a period of time.

Comorbidity of Autism and Apraxia

The interaction between autism, apraxia, and echolalia creates a triad of challenges in communication. Research has shown a substantial comorbidity between autism and Childhood Apraxia of Speech (CAS), with as much as 65% of children diagnosed with autism also exhibiting symptoms of apraxia [10]. This suggests that there is a significant overlap between these two conditions.

Apraxia refers to a motor planning deficit that affects the ability to execute voluntary movements for speech production. In the context of autism, apraxia can often co-occur with echolalia, potentially masking underlying apraxia symptoms. This highlights the importance of comprehensive evaluations to accurately diagnose and address the specific communication challenges faced by individuals with autism and apraxia.

Comprehensive Evaluation for Accurate Diagnosis

Given the complexity of the relationship between autism, apraxia, and echolalia, a comprehensive evaluation by a multidisciplinary team is essential. This evaluation should involve professionals such as speech-language pathologists, psychologists, and occupational therapists, who can assess various aspects of communication and motor skills.

The evaluation process typically includes a thorough assessment of speech and language abilities, motor planning skills, and the presence of echolalia. It may also involve standardized tests, observations, and parent or caregiver interviews to gather comprehensive information about the individual's communication profile.

By conducting a comprehensive evaluation, clinicians can accurately diagnose and differentiate between echolalia, autism, and apraxia, enabling them to develop tailored treatment plans to address the specific needs of each individual.

Understanding the role of echolalia within the triad of challenges in communication helps professionals and caregivers gain insights into the complex interaction between autism and apraxia. By recognizing and addressing these challenges, individuals with autism and apraxia can receive appropriate interventions and support to enhance their communication skills and overall well-being.

Treatment Options for Autism and Apraxia

When it comes to addressing the challenges of speech apraxia and autism, treatment options aim to improve communication skills and address the specific needs of individuals with both conditions. A personalized and multidisciplinary approach is typically taken, involving speech-language pathology, behavioral therapy, and the involvement of parents and caregivers in the treatment process.

Speech-Language Pathology

Speech-language pathology plays a crucial role in the treatment of individuals with autism and apraxia. Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) are trained professionals who specialize in diagnosing and treating communication disorders. They work closely with individuals to develop individualized treatment plans that target specific communication goals.

SLPs use a variety of techniques and strategies to enhance communication skills. These may include:

• Articulation therapy: focusing on improving the clarity of speech sounds.
• Language intervention: targeting the development of vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension skills.
• Social communication skills training: helping individuals with autism and apraxia navigate social interactions and understand non-verbal cues.
• Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC): introducing AAC systems, such as picture communication boards or electronic devices, to facilitate communication.

Through regular therapy sessions, individuals with autism and apraxia can make progress in their speech and language abilities, leading to improved overall communication.

Behavioral Therapy

Behavioral therapy is another important treatment approach for individuals with autism and apraxia. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a commonly used behavioral therapy technique. ABA focuses on teaching and reinforcing desired behaviors while reducing challenging behaviors. It can be effective in improving communication skills, social interactions, and overall behavior.

ABA therapy for individuals with autism and apraxia may include:

• Verbal behavior therapy: targeting language acquisition and communication skills.
• Naturalistic teaching strategies: incorporating everyday situations to promote functional communication.
• Task analysis: breaking down complex skills into smaller, achievable steps.

Behavioral therapy provides structure, consistency, and positive reinforcement to support individuals with autism and apraxia in achieving their communication goals.

Involvement of Parents and Caregivers

The involvement of parents and caregivers is crucial in the treatment of autism and apraxia. They play an integral role in supporting and reinforcing the skills learned during therapy sessions. By actively participating in the treatment process, parents and caregivers can help generalize communication skills to various environments and situations.

Working closely with professionals, parents and caregivers can:

• Implement strategies and techniques learned in therapy at home.
• Create a supportive and communication-rich environment.
• Encourage and reinforce positive communication behaviors.
• Advocate for their child's needs and support their overall development.

The collaboration between professionals, individuals with autism and apraxia, and their parents or caregivers forms a comprehensive approach to treatment, ensuring a holistic and individualized approach to communication improvement.

By combining speech-language pathology, behavioral therapy, and the involvement of parents and caregivers, individuals with autism and apraxia can make significant progress in their communication skills. Early intervention and consistent support are key factors in achieving positive outcomes and enhancing overall quality of life for individuals with these co-occurring conditions.

The Importance of Early Intervention for Autism and Apraxia

Early intervention plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges associated with speech apraxia and autism. By detecting and addressing these conditions in their early stages, children have a greater opportunity to develop effective communication skills and improve long-term outcomes.

Benefits of Early Detection

Early diagnosis of speech apraxia and autism allows for timely intervention, providing children and their families with the necessary support and resources. Early detection enables healthcare professionals to tailor treatment plans to meet the specific needs of each child, maximizing the potential for positive outcomes. According to the Mayo Clinic, early intervention is crucial for children with childhood apraxia of speech, as it significantly contributes to improving their communication skills.

Improved Outcomes with Early Intervention

Research and clinical experience have shown that early intervention can lead to improved outcomes for children with speech apraxia and autism. By providing therapy and support during the critical early years of development, children have the opportunity to make significant progress in their speech and communication abilities. Early intervention helps to address speech issues and promote the development of effective communication skills, enabling children to better express themselves and engage with others.

Holistic Approach to Treatment

Early intervention for speech apraxia and autism typically involves a holistic approach that encompasses various therapeutic strategies and interventions. This approach recognizes the multidimensional nature of these conditions and aims to address not only speech and language difficulties but also the broader challenges associated with social interaction and sensory processing.

Therapeutic interventions may include speech therapy techniques tailored to the individual needs of the child, such as oral-motor exercises and articulation drills. Additionally, augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems, such as sign language or picture-based communication boards, may be utilized to enhance communication abilities. The involvement of parents and caregivers in the treatment process is also crucial, as they play a vital role in supporting and reinforcing the skills learned during therapy sessions.

By adopting a comprehensive and individualized approach to early intervention, children with speech apraxia and autism can receive the necessary support to develop effective communication skills and overcome the challenges they may face.

Early intervention is the key to unlocking the potential of children with speech apraxia and autism. By detecting these conditions early and implementing personalized treatment plans, children can make significant progress in their speech and communication abilities, leading to improved long-term outcomes. It is essential for healthcare professionals, parents, and caregivers to work together to provide the necessary support and resources to help these children thrive.

References

• ‍https://www.yellowbusaba.com/post/speech-apraxia-and-autism
• ‍https://elemy.wpengine.com/mood-disorders/autism-and-speech-apraxia
• ‍https://tacanow.org/family-resources/therapeutic-and-communication-options-for-speech-issues-in-autism
• ‍https://eastwoodpsychologists.com/the-connection-between-autism-and-apraxia/
• https://www.kutestkids.com/blog/apraxia-of-speech-vs-aphasia